Group+Two


 * Introduction **

Immigration to the United States has been a popular notion worldwide ever since our country won its freedom some 200 years ago. Our forefathers fought and died for the privilege of freedom for all who sought to live in this land of opportunity. For reasons political, economical, and religious, immigrants have found their way across our borders by any means necessary. “Give me your tired, your poor” reads the engraving on the Statue of Liberty, our symbol of hope and freedom. America was built by its immigrants and now offers her children around the world a place of refuge and peace.

This is the American dream. This is what attracts migrants from around the world to our shores. However, while Lady Liberty holds her lamp high for those who wish to pursue a better life in our country, she also asks our new guests to abide by certain established immigration procedure. A huge problem exists today within our immigration policy and citizenship services that is allowing several hundred thousand immigrants to “slip through the cracks” of our borders each year and illegally enter the country.

These new, unregistered guests cause a backlash in American fiscal policy and force the government to place unnecessary attention (and tax dollars) on a problem that shouldn’t even exist. Our wiki will discuss the major proponents of the illegal immigration problem and what makes them so problematic, and finally we will propose a solution to divert illegal immigration and ensure the establishment of more legal residencies and citizenships.

Structural functionalism is the sociological theory which focuses on the structures in society which help it to maintain stability. This perspective views the society as a body, and the structures of society are the parts which work to keep the “body healthy”(Class Notes 2010). The economy, politics, education systems, and family are examples of these parts which are vital to society’s success, but have different singular functions. However, each of these functions work to maintain the equilibrium of society by “creating social cohesion” and “maintaining cultural patterns” (Class Notes 2010).
 * Theory **

When applying the structural functionalist theory to the issue of immigratioin in the United States, we will concern ourselves with the way people gain citizenship in the United States. Because the process of becoming a U.S. citizen is costly and tedious, many immigrants forgo the process entirely and choose to live in the US illegally. This creates obvious problems within society and our established social institutions.

Other social structures such as tax policy, government spending, and public education are negatively affected by the instability of just one structure—immigration policy. Problems within our immigration system have a ripple-effect and tend to corrupt other governmental structures like unnecessary budgeting for border patrol and over-population/population control issues.In effect, the ineptitude of one structure (immigration policy) leads to the corruption of several other structures, namely, excessive government spending on immigration-related issues and indirect tax evasion by illegal aliens within the American workforce.

When one structure fails, the stability of society is ruptured and corruption seeps into other structures as well. As structural-functionalists, we believe the best way to combat these problems is to fix the leak in the original structure: U.S. immigration policy. An updated, useful policy will allow a smoother flow of //legal// immigration, and discourage illegal migration to the States. With fewer illegal aliens and more legal residents, these other troubled structures (government spending, available tax dollars) will fix themselves. = = = Literature Review =

Illegal immigration in the United States is considered a major problem for several reasons. First, illegal immigration is an unwanted expense for our government. Government resources (paid for by American tax dollars) are used to fund rehabilitation, schooling, health care, and other benefits, usually reserved for sanctioned U.S. citizens, are also benefitting illegal immigrants. Because these illegal aliens do not pay money into our current tax system, there exists a shortage of the funds actually available to the U.S. citizens who pay for these services. Government money is also spent on border patrol along the U.S.-Mexican border, and an ongoing controversy over border patrol policy exists today.Other concerns for illegal immigration include over-population and a shortage of available resources in certain regions, as well as some reported increased occurrences of racial violence, crime rate, and an overall promotion of terrorism.

There is a fear that too many of these illegal immigrants—from hardworking families seeking a better life, to potential criminals and violent revolutionaries—are entering our country and taking advantage of government resources that we cannot continually afford to offer to people who do not qualify to receive them.

Immigrants who finally receive the status of Legal Permanent Resident (LPR) or undergo Naturalization (the legal process of gaining a new nationality) cease to be burdens to our immigration policy system because they are pay into social security, healthcare, federal/state income taxes, and in general become a “player” in the American tax system (Rytina 2009). In short, once these immigrants have been legally received into the United States, they become //assets,// and are no longer //liabilities//.

The United States Citizenship and Immigration Services (USCIS) is the government agency that oversees lawful immigration to the United States (USCIS.gov 2009). The USCIS works to promote the integration of immigrants into American culture, as well as advocate/grant immigration and citizen benefits for those who seek it.

The main problem we have found with U.S. immigration policy is the way our government, namely the USCIS, handles the matter of illegal immigrants in our country. Each year more money is poured into increased border patrol, but more illegal immigrants somehow make their way into our country (Immigration 2009). While obvious solutions such as an even larger increase in border patrol, harsher penalties for illegal immigrants and the smugglers, etc. exist, the main problem lies within the current system of obtaining citizenship in the U.S. The function of the USCIS is to provide information, counsel, and finally the necessary forms and legal actions required to receive recognized legal citizenship in the U.S. However, there exists an obvious complexity in this system that causes hundreds of thousands of illegal aliens to migrate to our country each year, while forgoing the necessary processes required to obtain legal residence in the U.S. These illegal immigrants then contribute to the resulting problems mentioned above.

**Solution** Our group wishes to propose an overall simplification of the process required to obtain LPR status, or a Green Card, in the United States (Rytina 2009). Some current problems include too many and too complex forms to fill out during the application. Also in the application process are oral, written, and reading exams covering subjects ranging from American history to the English language. Considering many of our own natural-born citizens struggle with U.S. history, not to mention the fact that the United States does not even //have// an official language, these items seem a bit too trivial to be the deciding factor between acceptance and rejection of American citizenship.

More problems include a very steep application fee for //each// family member seeking citizenship or residency, and a long waiting/processing period that frustrates and can altogether deter migrants from entering our country through legal means. If the process to obtain legal U.S. citizenship was made easier and more available, we believe many more U.S. immigrants—who will enter our country each year regardless of legality—would seek to become legal residents instead of risking entering our country through illegal means.

There are several ways of simplifying the process for obtaining U.S. citizenship, some of which could include less paperwork (or providing legal counsel to aid in completing these applications), smaller, less intimidating monetary fees (just imagine the money saved when we are able to reduce border patrol, etc.), and more highly publicized benefits of legal citizenship (raise awareness and make it clear why being a legal resident is the way to go). These and other measures can be taken to curb illegal immigration to the U.S. while making legal residence a viable and desirable alternative.

**Annotated Bibliographies** Bibliography by Ana Taylor
 * 1.** Knickerbocker, Brad. "Illegal Immigrants in the U.S: How Many Are There?". The Christian Science Monitor. April 28, 2010.

What is the amount of illegal immigrant population in the U.S? How can we know the approximate amount of illegal immigrants? Where do the Illegal immigrants come from? How can we tell the illegal immigrant population is increasing?
 * Main Questions:**
 * Main Findings:**

1. No body can ever know how many illegal immigrants there are in the United States. There can be census after census or survey after survey, but the precise number, not even a ball park number can be calculated accurately. Depending on the source, 7-20 million people are estimated to be living in the United States illegally (Knickerbocker 2006). Estimates are hard to confirm because illegal immigrants avoid filling out citizen questionnaires. According to US Citizenship and Immigration Services, in 2003, approximately 7 million illegal immigrants arrived in the U.S. Since then, about 500,000 more have relocated into our country (Knickerbocker 2006). 2. The sources that provide the amount of illegal immigrants to the States vary their reports. US Border Patrol, in Arizona, near the border, estimates 12-14 million illegal immigrants to be living with us today. However, according to Senator John McCain (R) in 2004, there were about 4 million. He acquired his information also from the US Border Patrol. 3. School enrollments, foreign remittances, border crossings, and house permits are contributing factors to recognizing that census’ capture only about half of the illegal population. Again, no one can pinpoint the exact amount of illegal immigrants in the United States at any given moment. It simply isn’t feasible. There could be up to 20 million or as few as 2 million, depending on the source (Knickerbocker 2006). 4. Public school enrollment, language proficiency programs, and building permits all indicate the increase of the illegal population in that area. 5. Americans are concerned with the illegal immigration growth increase. "A growing number believe that immigrants are a burden to the country, taking jobs and housing and creating strains on the healthcare system," as stated by the Pew Hispanic Center, clearly indicated the resentment of Americans toward the illegal immigrants (Knickerbocker 2006). The percentage of Americans that felt that illegal immigrants are a burden to society because they take jobs and housing grew from 38 % to 52 % (Knickerbocker 2006).

Bibliography by Ana Taylor
 * 2**. "Immigration to the United States". U.S. Immigration Support. April 28, 2010 .

How did the origin of immigration occur? How has immigration evolved throughout America’s history? What are the immigration policies? What is the rate of illegal immigration? How do Americans respond to immigration?
 * Main Questions:**
 * Main Findings:**

1. Immigrants have impacted the history of America. Our country was founded with an assortment of immigrants from all over the world. Individuals still flock to the United States in search of political freedom and the opportunity for a better life. At one point in time, immigration to the United States was encouraged. The land was open and free for the taking. 2. Obviously, today’s scenario looks quite a bit different. By 1965, Congress transformed the National Origins Act, which was instituted in 1921 and limited the racial immigration rate to 3% from each race (Immigration 2009). The National Origins Act was altered so that families could be united in by immigration preference. Proponents of the legislation had high hopes that immigrants would include a skilled population to boost the society (Immigration 2009). 3. The amount of legal immigrants admitted into the country has increased as well as the number of illegal immigrants. From 1963 to 1993, about 16.3 million legal immigrants were allowed to enter the United States (Immigration 2009). However, just in the 1990’s, nearly 9 million immigrants alone were admitted (Immigration 2009). 50% of that number was of either Caribbean or Latin America descent or a third of Asian descent. The current quota of legal immigrants is between 700,000 and 900,000 (Immigration 2009). 4. The decline of the economy has forced legal and illegal immigrants to return to their homeland due to lack of resources. It is estimated that 30,000 immigrants return leave since unemployment rates have escalated (Immigration 2009). The arrest of illegal immigrants has decreased by 18 % since 2006 and 40 % since 2005, thereby indicating the decrease of illegal immigration (Immigration 2009). 5. However, immigration is still a strong, pressing issue in America. There are estimated to be 12 million undocumented residents in the U.S (Immigration 2009). The government that controls immigration service is called U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, or USCIS. As of March 1, 2003, USCIS became a part of Department of Homeland Security (Immigration 2009). However, the immigration enforcement is under the authority of Bureau of U.S Immigration and Customs Enforcement or ICE.

Bibliography by Taylor Hindman There was a great rise in illegal immigration from Mexico starting in early 1980’s. Why are more mexicans coming across the border?** The quality of life in the larger cities (Mexico City, Guadalajara) is not better than the quality of life in less populated areas, rather just more opportunity for jobs Dream of moving north to America for a better chance for making money- families hire “coyotes” smugglers to bring them across the border and then are transferred to another place to find jobs. Upon entering the United States, generally they have two main goals. 1) Make money so they can send it back to their families in Mexico. 2) Gain a job long enough to bring their family from Mexico to the states for everybody to start a new life. Some come across the border in order to make enough money to start a new business and bring their company back to Mexico with them.
 * 3.** "The Push For Amnesty For Illegal Aliens." //The Federation For American Immigration Reform//. Web. 29 Apr. 2010.
 * Theme:**
 * Main Questions with Findings:

Serious penalties or fines go to anybody caught smuggling illegal immigrants. Every year more patrol and check points are set up in Arizona and New Mexico whose sole purpose is to check passing people for proof of residency or any sort of identification. If no identification is available, the illegal’s are returned to Mexican soil. They recognize the problem and realize the need for a change in the current process. The government admits the need for greater enforcement of current laws.
 * What is the government currently doing to prevent continuation of illegal immigration?**

To gain a green card takes a very long process with many complex forms. Due to different views on the topic with in the government, it is hard to develop ONE system that is going to accommodate both party’s views.
 * The Problem of the ineffective process of attaining a green card.**

Currently there are more than a million illegal immigrants gaining green cards each year, and that number is growing since 2000. SIDE ONE) Southwestern Americans want to hire cheap labor for their work, and illegal’s want any money they can get. Why not increase the amount of legal immigrants allowed in the country each year to lessen the amount of illegal’s? SIDE TWO) We can not allow the continuation of the increase of illegal’s coming across the border because of the stress and imbalance it puts on that area of the countries economy. With the continuation of the current laws and enforcement in place, the illegal population will continue to rise and will not go away. You identify your self with your country’s laws to make up who you are. If we continue to overlook the law being broken, we discontinue what America was founded on. With an increase in the amount of green cards as proposed, we will have a loss of job opportunities for many people. Instead of college students working to pay for education, we will have immigrants trying to use the money to bring their family over or to go back and add to the Mexican economy, neither which is beneficial to the American public.

Wiki 3 Intro: America is well known for its promise of equal access to wealth, prosperity, success and happiness. The “American Dream” is a unique concept used to describe this promise and the general goals Americans seek like a good career, healthy family, adequate housing and enough money to afford some forms of luxury. We tell many “Cinderella” stories to prove the possibility of an individual rising above unlikely circumstances and reach high levels of achievement. These stories, however, are not the norm. Though the “American Dream” is possible for many, our society does not always offer equal opportunities to all social classes. We will investigate the reality of and the reason for this unequal accessibility using the symbolic interactionism perspective and find that the dream is not equally accessible to all Americans because of the symbolism we apply to social classes like gender, economic situation and race.  Theory: The symbolic interactionism theory views society as the collection of everyday interactions of individuals. This theory emphasizes the fact that we act toward things on the basis of their symbolic meaning. (Class Notes 2010). This perspective suggests that the reason for unequal accessibility to the “American Dream” is not a result of the structure of society, or the actual capabilities of a social group, but an individual’s own assumption of his or her place in society through the symbolic relation of his or her family’s class. An individual then acts according to the symbolic role their family’s class entails. People don’t often stray from these roles, continuing a cycle of continued poverty, or prosperity. Thus, movement upward in society toward the “American Dream” is not easily done by individuals who are raised in a lower social class.

Employment opportunities are key to an individual’s attainment of the “American Dream.” Therefore, through the symbolic interactionism perspective, we can see that individuals of lower classes are less likely to achieve the dream because they are more likely to receive and accept lower paying, or part time jobs that lack benefits (Rank 2003). This is because of both the symbolism those in the lower class attach to themselves, and those that individuals in higher classes attach to those in lower classes. Thus, we can see how this not only affects the employment opportunities offered to different classes, but also, why people accept inadequate wages. For these reasons, the symbolic interactionism theorists would name an individuals beginning family social class, and the symbolism they and others attach to it, as the independent variable in an individual's attainment of the "American Dream" and the reason for the unequal accessibility to it.

Literature Review: As Americans, we live in a society with different statuses and classes. On account of these inequalities, there is a divide among the American people. Robert Max Jackson, in his article, “Keyword: Inequalities,” discusses the idea of inequalities in a society. Inequality, according to the social science’s perspective, refers to the value and distinction of qualities such as wealth, prestige, education and security (Jackson 2007). These inequalities exist in individuals, segments of population, ethnic groups, organizations, positions in a hierarchy, and even nations as a whole (Jackson 2007). There are many things which influence a person’s status such as race, gender, parents’ status, occupation, wealth, education, and other characteristics (Jackson 2007). Thus, these inequalities contribute to the economic inequality. As research shows, people tend to associate themselves with those of their own status. Consequently, we are divided into our own groups and communities. However, sociologists Kingsley Davis and Wilbert Moore posed an argument that “positions in a modern economy carry unequal rewards because higher rewards are needed to attract trained and motivated people to fill the jobs important to a society’s functioning” (Jackson 2007). In conclusion, the effects of inequality reach members of all classes, though the circumstances and repercussion are often very different.

In America, poverty is very common. Yet, according to Mark Rank’s article, “As American as Apple Pie: Poverty and Welfare,” people usually associate poverty with those who don’t have a steady income. However, in America, poverty is more common than people think. Between 11-15% of people in America has lived below poverty for the past three decades (Rank 2003). Studies, such as the Panel Study of Income Dynamics (PSID), the National Longitudinal Survey (NLS), and the Survey of Income and Program Participation (SIPP), have shown that households fluctuate financially. The “life tables” show what percentage of Americans experience poverty during adulthood and what percentage will utilize the social safety net programs, such as food stamps or Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF). By 30 years of age, 27% of Americans will have experienced poverty. By 50 years of age, the percentage will have risen to 42-50%. Furthermore, by 75 years of age, 59% of Americans spend at least a year of their lives in poverty. Additionally, these percentages would be higher if childhood years were included (Rank 2003). Social safety net programs assist impoverished Americans through programs such as food stamps, Medicaid, AFDC, Supplemental Security Income, and general assistance. Two-thirds of Americans, by 65 years of age, will have expended social safety net programs for at least a year. Of this population, 40% will have used welfare for five separate years (Rank 2003).

Due to this increase in poverty, we must be concerned with the causes of poverty. One of these causes is time. As research has shown, various, unanticipated events, such as a medical emergency, can affect families financially at different times. Another cause is the social safety net. During a financial emergency, government assistance is minimal and usually not enough to save a family from poverty. According to the Luxembourg Income Study (LIS), an international collection of economic surveys, the United States, with the highest rate of poverty in the industrialized world, does the least to prevent poverty (Rank 2003). Thirdly, the labor market is a cause of the increase of poverty. Over the past 20 years, the amount of well paying jobs has decreased while the amount of lower-paying jobs has increased (Rank 2003). In the United States, there has always been a shortage of jobs compared to amount needed. With poverty as common as “American as apple pie,” America should consider all the factors which contribute to the increase in poverty.

Methods:  America has always been known as the land of the free, full of opportunities for people to make a new life. This new life begins with the equal opportunity for a quality education and through that education, the ability to have a better job and support a family. We can identify the reason for unequal access to the "American Dream" by looking at our independent variable: the symbolism attached to an individual's beginning social class (race, gender, economic, etc.), and evaluating how it affects our dependent variable: the amount of access that individual has to attaining the "American Dream."

We focused on statistics which proved that a person's socio-economic status affects how they will relate to others, and how others will relate to them in society, regardless of their skill level. Facts which showed unequal employment opportunities based on race or gender aided us greatly, as well as information regarding the stigma Americans place on the poor.

Taking into account the data provided about wealth, unemployment, poverty, and wages in America, the American Dream is clearly not equally available to all Americans. The data from the “Wealth” section indicates that the wealthiest Americans have long held the majority of America’s wealth, while the poor have steadily maintained their more modest resources. From 1980-2000, the gap between the average incomes of the upper 1% and bottom 90% of Americans increased from 12.6-32.7%. Clearly, the American Dream is more feasible to the wealthy than the poor. Variables such as gender, race, education, and criminal record all affect American’s socio-economic status. An American’s profession directly affects his or her socio-economic status. In December of 2007, when the recession began, there were 5.1 men to every 3.9 women unemployed. Currently, for every 11 men unemployed, there are 8.8 women unemployed.
 * Results **

Racially, there is quite a distinction among poverty rates. African-Americans have had the highest poverty rate from 1973-2006. However, the Hispanic poverty rate has steadily risen since 1973 so that it now almost equals the rate of African-Americans. Unfortunately, 21.9% of American children grow up in poverty. As could be expected, 31.5 % Caucasians occupy the most well paying jobs, while Asians follow with 28.1%, African-Americans with 21.8 %, and Hispanics with 14.4%. We can distinguish jobs among Caucasians because the highest paying goes to white males. Data shows that education will always affect employment opportunities. Higher education is rewarded by doubled percentages of employment, no matter what the race. Having a criminal record definitely affects the likelihood of positive employment opportunities, especially among African-Americans. The likelihood of getting a call back from a job is 4% among African-Americans. However, without a criminal record the percentage rises to 12.5 %. A higher percentage of Caucasians are called back, but there is still a difference among those with criminal records and those without. Those that have a record are called back 15 % of the time, while those without the record are called 32% of the time. Thus, we can see the inequality of races correlates with employment opportunities and ultimately, one’s socio-economic status. Depending on certain symbolisms, the “American Dream” can either be within one’s grasp or completely out of reach.

Annotated Bibliographies:


 * 1. Jackson, Robert Max. (2007). “Keyword: Inequalities” Contexts. American Sociological Association **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 12pt;">

(Bibliography by Brad Lorang)


 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 11pt;">Research Question: **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 11pt;"> Is the American Dream equally available to all American citizens?

1. The ideas of equality and inequality create a paradox of social thought and ideology that influences the way groups react to their positions in life. While some people have great opportunities, others do not. This is how we experience inequality. A society only considers the idea of equality when it is permeated with inequality. 2. The seventeenth and eighteenth century produced men who were able to produce a modern concept of social equality. According to them, social inequality was the result of social institutions and groups, not the natural will of God. Thus the modern concept of social equality was produced: continually blaming others for unfortunate circumstances. This new "Enlightenment thinking", as they called it, also inspired the foundation of several utopian societies and an effort to create a world free from inequality (Jackson 2007). Personal ideas of inequality create a gap between social classes. 3. People of similar socioeconomic status tend to conjugate together. They will share neighborhoods, schools, colleges, churches, and places of recreation, such as parks (Jackson 2007). Their experiences, hardships, success are similar and can be shared. The similarity causes people with the same social status to connect in a better, more comfortable way. 4. In the realm of social sciences, inequality refers to the value and distinction of qualities such as wealth, prestige, education, and security (Jackson 2007). Inequality can exist among individuals, segments of population, ethnic groups, organizations, positions in a hierarchy, and even nations as a whole (Jackson 2007) 5. Various social mechanisms and economic/political structures such as inheritance, social immobility, social exclusion, and discrimination preserve status inequalities from generation to generation (Jackson 2007). These separate statuses affect each other, as well. Racial and gender status, along with age, may affect social or economic status (Jackson 2007) 6. A somewhat unknown relationship exists between positional status, such as economic status, and social status, which could be race or gender (Jackson 2007). Those in positions of power are more likely to adopt an ideology which will maintain their power, but those who oppose the power position must organize and unite under an ideology that opposes inequality in order for change to occur (Jackson 2007) 7. Sociologists Kingsley Davis and Wilber Moore made the argument that inequality is necessary in order for capitalism to be successful (Jackson 2007). Inequalities such as rewards and incentives give motivation for a better work ethic and higher contribution to society. This argument, however, appears weak under further inspection. It suggests unequal rewards attract qualified people to their functional positions. However, common observation shows most inequalities arise from different roots (Jackson 2007) 8. In conclusion, the effects of inequality reach members of all classes, though the circumstance and repercussions are often vastly different


 * 2.** <span style="font-family: arial,helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 20px;">**Rank, Mark R. (2003). “As American as Apple Pie: Poverty and Welfare.” Contexts. American Sociological Association**

** (Bibliography by Ana Taylor)

Main Questions: ** · Why do Americans unjustly view the poor in a superior manner? · What are the causes of poverty? · Why do a high percentage of Americans experience poverty at some point in their lives? <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">1. Often times, Americans distance themselves from the poor because they are undeserving of help. A distinct division is made between those under the sway of poverty and welfare and those who aren’t. However, this distinction is misleading because poverty in the United States is “as American as apple pie”, meaning, just as apple pie is a common American item, so is poverty. <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">2. The Census Bureau’s surveys provide our main source of understanding of poverty in our nation. For the past three decades, between 11-15 percent of Americans have lived below poverty (Rank 2003). Common causes can depend on age, race, gender, family structure, community of residence, education, work skills, and physical disabilities (Rank 2003). There are some studies available, such as the Panel Study of Income Dynamics (PSID), the National Longitudinal Survey (NLS), and the Survey of Income and Program Participation (SIPP) that study families over a period of time to observe their financial fluctuations. Usually, households move through a cycle. They may be impoverished for a few years, rise above the poverty level for awhile, and then fall back again into poverty once again. Instead of looking at the amount of impoverished people per year, look at the number of people who are ever affected by poverty. The vast amount makes poverty seem almost typical. A table was made, called the “life tables” portraying what percentage of Americans experience poverty during adulthood and what percentage will utilize the social safety net programs, such as food stamps or Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF). <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">a. By 30 years old, 27 percent of Americans will have experienced poverty. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">b. By 50, the percentage will have risen to 42-50 percent. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">c. By 75, 59 percent of Americans spend at least a year of their lives in poverty. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">d. If childhood years are included, the percentages would rise even higher (Rank 2003). Obviously, a majority of Americans are affected by poverty. Social safety net programs assist impoverished Americans by programs such as: food stamps, Medicaid, AFDC, Supplemental Security Income, and general assistance. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">a. By 65 years old, two-thirds of Americans will have expended social safety net programs for at least a year <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">b. 40 percent of that population will have used welfare for five separate years (Rank 2003) <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">3. Causes of the increase of poverty: <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">a. Time is a huge factor. While many surveys study people over single, five or ten years, the life-tables determine the risk of poverty over a lifetime. Various, unanticipated events can affect families financially at different times. For example, a family may be near or at poverty level because of a medical emergency. However, once the emergency has passed and the family is back on track financially, is it fair to include their case as another impoverished family, while they were only at poverty level for a small period of time? <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">b. The social safety net affects the amount of poverty-stricken Americans. During a financial emergency, government assistance is minimal and usually not enough to save a family from poverty. The American welfare system makes the slightest effect compared to other countries. For example, European countries offer social and insurance programs that include cash payments to families with children, generous unemployment assistance and universal health coverage including child care support. According to the Luxembourg Income Study (LIS), an international collection of economic surveys, the United States does the least to prevent poverty. European and Canadian programs reduce poverty rates by an average of 79 percent while the United States reduces poverty from 29 to 18 percent. The U.S. has the highest rate of poverty in the industrialized world (Rank 2003). <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">c. A third factor is the labor market. In the past 30 years, the amount of well paying jobs has decreased while the amount of lower-paying jobs has increased (Rank 2003). The Census Bureau estimated that in 2000 the median hourly earnings of workers were $9.91 (Rank 2003). That same year, approximately 3 million Americans worked part-time jobs because of a shortage of full-time jobs. Part-time jobs simply won’t support a job, forcing them into poverty. The U.S., at 25 percent, has the highest percentage of full-time workers being paid low wages. In addition, a vast amount more jobs are needed (Rank 2003). Even in the booming 1990’s, it was estimated that 5 to 9 million more jobs were needed in order to satisfy the need. There has always been a shortage of jobs compared to the amount needed. <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">4. Normality of Poverty: Americans should reconsider their opinions of the class of people stricken with poverty. Considering the normality of poverty in our nation, it would be wise to guarantee the reduction of poverty by establishing a secure social safety net. The common stereotype of the poor is that they are lazy, lack motivation, questionable morals and therefore, undeserving of assistance. However, the poverty class simply contradicts this stereotype. As C. Wright Mills said in an example, “If there was a city of 100,000, and only one man is unemployed, that is his personal trouble…But when in a nation of 50 million employees, 15 million men are unemployed, that is an issue…The very structure of opportunities has collapsed” (Rank 2003). The issue of poverty can be perceived in the same way. When a high majority of Americans will experience poverty at some point in their lives, the resulting percentage indicates a lack of motivation is a small or insignificant factor. Poverty goes much deeper. Lack of jobs, inadequacy of the social safety net, age, gender, education, and community of residency are some factors which contribute to poverty. As the article is entitled, poverty is as common as, “American as Apple Pie”.
 * Main Findings: **

Wiki 2 Introduction: Crisis Pregnancy Centers and Pregnancy Homes are committed to providing support to women who find themselves pregnant during unexpected times. This involves providing “resources that parents need to meet the mental, physical, and spiritual needs of their unborn child/children. (Interview 9, 2010)” Thus, these centers offer counsel, information and temporal goods to their clients. Though the centers offer a haven from society, or the influences which led to each situation, they are aware that their mission is to prepare their clients to survive in society. Therefore, they must be well tuned in to the structures which lead to crisis pregnancies in the first place. They must also find the most effective practices which led to success in the lives of women and their child after leaving the center.

=** Theory: **=

Structural functionalism is the sociological theory which focuses on the structures in society which help it to maintain stability. This perspective views the society as a body, and the structures of society are the parts which work to keep the “body healthy”(Class Notes 2010). The economy, politics, education systems, and family are examples of these parts which are vital to society’s success, but have different singular functions. However, each of these functions work to maintain the equilibrium of society by “creating social cohesion” and “maintaining cultural patterns” (Class Notes 2010).

A structural functionalist would point crisis pregnancy centers to a few different variables. First, they must consider the institutions which affected their clients prior to their admittance to the center. These variables may include institutions like schools, and what form of sex education was offered, the media, the financial situation surrounding the client’s situation, and the strength of family relationship and what sort of guidance was offered. They must also consider how these variables will affect their clients after leaving the center. The best way to prescribe successful methods for centers is to compare the methods of centers which have had success in responding to social institutions.

= Literature Review: = <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; font-weight: normal;"> Crisis pregnancy centers offer a place for women with unplanned or unexpected pregnancies to go for shelter and support. These centers offer advice and allow options that many women would never have on their own. It is also important for these centers to know the different types of women they will interact with, and train their staff accordingly. It is imperative for crisis pregnancy centers to make themselves available as an alternative option for women with unplanned pregnancies who are unsure what to do. Often times the negativity of mass media and abortion clinics are the only easily accessible information in the community for these women. It is the job of crisis pregnancy centers to promote the emotional and psychological health of the woman, as well as the physical well-being of the unborn child, through means such as counseling, pregnancy literature, and any other emotional support.

Crisis pregnancy centers operate by means of best practice consideration. This process involves researching current practices and adopting the most efficient, or “best,” practices in order to achieve success (Eglene 2010). According to Ophelia Eglene in her //<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; font-weight: normal;">Center for Technology in Government //<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; font-weight: normal;">article, there are three major steps in conducting this kind of research: 1) formulate the question, 2) gather information, and 3) conduct interviews. Centers then discover the most effective ways of reaching these women by discovering the best ways to attract and treat them.

It is important for these centers to operate as efficiently as possible because they are left the incredible task of supporting pregnant women who seek some option other than abortion. Many of these crisis pregnancy centers suggest adoption, a choice that has become increasingly popular among women (Mathewes-Green 1996). It is crucial for pregnancy centers to stress adoption because many women never realize it is an option. A child that grows up in a stable, two-parent home is almost always better off (Mathewes-Green 1996). With the help of these nonbiased, trained professionals, women can receive the help they need and make the best of their unplanned pregnancy.

=<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 200%;">Results/Analysis: =


 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-weight: normal;">One major factor in the success of these crisis pregnancy centers was the center's ability to reach the public. Almost all the centers and homes interviewed stated that word of mouth was the most effective way to jump-start their initiatives, namely, reaching pregnant women in crisis pregnancies with no where else to turn. Word of mouth, along with published materials like brochures, posters, television/newspaper ads, and billboards were also cited as the best means for reaching these women. **

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-weight: normal;">An effective crisis pregnancy center would need to be viewed as an available, dependable, and realistic destination for women in crisis pregnancies. Most crisis pregnancy centers lack name recognition and familiarity in a community, especially when they first start out. It is necessary for the centers to spread word that they are a viable option and a preferable alternative for the women they seek to help. The more women a center can administer to, the more likely that woman is to recommend and advocate the crisis pregnancy center as the best option for her friends, relatives, co-workers, or anyone else who might be interested in its services.


 * As structural-functionalist theorists, our group also recognized the importance of the crisis pregnancy center's role as an institution which can pass down new values to their clients, and counteract the values previously passed down from the media or their own dysfunctional families. They need to point their clients to helpful institutions which will help them be successful in society. For the mother, these institutions may include welfare, and education. For the child, the single most important institution will be a stable family. This means that the centers need to promote the importance of stable families which instill morals which will lead to the success of the child. Consequently, for some mothers, information on adoption will need to be available. **

=** Methods: **= We followed the CTG’s most important steps in conducting research: formulate the question, gather preliminary information and conduct in-depth interviews (Eglene 2010) in order to discern what the best methods are for crisis pregnancy centers in America. We combed through our sources, as well as the interviews we (and our classmates) conducted with various crisis pregnancy centers and pregnancy homes in America, looking for information about social structures.

We discovered that the institution of the family, as well as the economic situation of the family, has a huge affect on the likelihood of repeat crisis pregnancies, and generational trends of crisis pregnancy (Mathewes-Green1996). Eighty to ninety percent, or approximately 200,000 clients become single mothers with wavering financial needs, and welfare becomes their main source of income (Mathewes-Green 1996). Outcomes for families like this are often poverty, low academic achievement, and susceptibility to crime (Mathewes-Green 1996). Thus, pregnancy centers need to look into the future of their clients and their children and promote two-parent families or adoption.

The type of family which an individual matures in seems to be the single most important institution affecting whether women experience a crisis pregnancy. Adoption is a way for children who are conceived outside of wed-lock to grow up in a stable family. Crisis pregnancy centers should promote different economic aid institutions as possible options for women, but they should also present adoption as a way to insert their child into the most optimal situation for their success. In this way, by promoting the benefits of a stable family, crisis pregnancy centers can help decrease the amount of crisis pregnancies in the future. This is because children who are adopted, rather than aborted, will be raised in secure economic situations, and stable families which will pass down values and norms which promote marriage and family for their own futures.

These values and norms are different from the ones being passed down through the media. Many of the center directors we interviewed noted the influence media has had on their clients. “There is definitely a worldly influence, from TV to movies, it has become accepted to have children out of wedlock” (Interview 4, 2010). One director noted that “local media doesn’t see the value in teaching the importance of abstinence only sex education” (Interview 2, 2010). Because of the media’s effects on the minds of their clients, many centers try to instill new values into their clients. However, while centers and homes can try to counteract the effects of current media trends on their clients, they cannot guarantee that media will not influence their child in the future. By either promoting two-parent families, or adoption, they be pro-active in assuring the child will learn their norms or values from an institution other than the media, namely, their own family. One director offered the advice that centers should work with adoption agencies to have references for clients (Interview 7, 2010).

**Conclusion:**

<span style="color: #000000; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">Through our research, we found that the most effective way for crisis pregnancy centers to reach their goals, and successfully minister to women in these crisis situations, involved several things. First,the center must recognize the structures in these women's lives which have led to these situations. Then, there must be an effort to create new, or bolster already present, structures in the lives of the women, as well as their child, which will teach different values and norms. This effort should focus on the short and long term influences in the lives of the clients and their child. Thus, in the short term it is evident that practices at the center to reteach the importance of marriage in the raising of a child, the availability of financial aid, and the option of adoption to their clients have proven most successful. The latter of these will reach beyond the present and help crisis pregnancy centers reach a long term goal of decreasing the amount of crisis pregnancies in the first place. Ultimately, centers which act as a new teaching institution in the lives of women, and help set up, and stress the importance of, valuable teaching institutions for the child will be most successful in their mission.

= Annotated Bibliographies: =

(bibliography by Taylor Hindman)**
 * 1. Henshaw, Stanley K. "Unintended Pregnancy in the United States."** //**Guttmacher Institute**//**. Jan. & feb. 1998. Web. 1 Mar. 2010.

Over the past few decades, there has been vast changes in the numbers of unintended pregnancies, and how the women chose what to do with the baby. From 1987-1994, the unintended pregnancy rate decreased 16% from 54 per 1000, to 45 per 1000. As a result of this, both the rate of unintended births and abortions also dropped. Between 1987 and 1994, the most women to have unintended pregnancies, births, and abortions were women between age 20 and 24. The next closest age group was age 15 to 19. In 1995, the NFSG (National Survey of Family Growth) took a survey of women from age 15 to 44 and 28% indicated that they had one or more unplanned births and 30% of women had one or more abortions. The rate of unintended pregnancy increased with age, most likely because of the women’s longer exposure to the risk of pregnancy. Through numerous NFSG surveys, it is seen that nearly half of all pregnancies are unintended and 28% of women age 15-44 have had an unplanned birth and 30% have had an abortion; 60% of women in their 30s have had an unplanned birth or an abortion; and, at 1992 rates, 43% of women will have had an abortion by age 45. The majority of women in the in the statistics who have an abortion, are to stressed or feel that they are unable to raise a child in the world in their current situation. The rise of abortions is likely also due to the availability of contraceptives and improved technology. With the abortion industry growing, unfortunately so is the technology so more women feel like this is a better option than caring for their child they had.

(bibliography by Katie Desme)**
 * 2. Eglene, Ophelia. Center for Technology in Government. “Conducting Best and Current Practices Research: A Starter Kit.” January 2000. 1 Mar. 2010.

<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">1. What is the best way to find research on best practices? <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">2. What are some useful sources?
 * __Main Questions:__**

· Problem probably will happen to another practice whether “public, private, or nonprofit sector” (Eglene 2000) · “Identifying and evaluating the solutions developed by these other organizations is a crucial step in project planning” (Eglene 2000). · Next step, find the things that made the practice a success, also pay attention to the “less-than-successful stories” (Eglene 2000). · Step 1: Create the Question o “Think about goal,” break down o Expand and consider problems with question “specify things that are NOT part of your research goals” (Eglene 2000). · Step 2: Collect Findings o Research the Internet, books, magazines, and phone o Consider people who will have insight about your question o Ask organizations with “best practices” to get more information (Eglene 2000) o Use the internet to search topics and like research o Research “technologies or management methods that might be useful in your project and search for organizations that are known to use them successfully” (Eglene 2000) · Step 3: Interview o Should include asking experienced people for insight · Northern Light: http://www.northernlight.com o “free search engine and a fee database” (Eglene 2000) o collected works of more than 4,500 works o organizes results of search · Alta Vista: http://www.altavista.com o Great for “specific searches” (Eglene 2000) o Access to discussions or messages from newsgroups · Yahoo: http://www.yahoo.com o A directory with 500,000 sites organized into more than 25,000 categories · Google: http://www.google.com o “ranks hits by the number of incoming links and the popularity of the sites” (Eglene 2000) o Great for searching for U.S. government documents · Hotbot: http://www.hotbot.com o Specify search by language, date, domain, region, or certain word. · Debriefing: http://www.debriefing.com o “Searches for your query in Alta Vista, Excite, HotBot, Infoseek, Lycos, WebCrawler, and Yahoo” (Eglene 2000). o Doesn’t give same results from other search engines · Dogpile: http://www.dogpile.com o Searches for results in 25 search engines and organizes them from most exact to general result. · Profusion: http://www.profusion.com o Has nine search engines which allows you to pick the ones you want to use. · Ask Jeeves: http://www.askjeeves.com o Locates answers to a specific question. · The Argus Clearinghouse: http://www.clearinghouse.net o Has 13 categories that are divided in sub-categories · The WWW Virtual Library: http://www.vlib.org o Provides categories · “Tips for an Efficient Search” o Use quotation marks around a group of words or else every word will be searched separately. o Use AND in all capital letters if you want your result to include two words. o Use OR in all capital letters in order to search synonyms and you will get results for either word. o Use the +sign to make sure the engine includes words such as: “in, of, a, out, with” (Eglene 2000). o Use the -sign to make sure the results don’t include a particular word. o Use the *sign to retrieve results with the word before the *sign. o Use parenthesis to combine words or signs like: “(American or U.S.) AND presidency” · Library databases o JSTOR § Provides full text articles of “economy, finance, education, mathematics, sociology, and political science” (Eglene 2000). o EBSCO § Provides full text articles and abstracts in “business, humanities, news, science, and social sciences” (Eglene 2000). o UnCover Reveal § “The only database that does the work for you” (Eglene 2000). § Enter keywords and it searches “journal citations and tables of contents” which match your search (Eglene 2000). o Public Affairs Information Service Bulletin § Database of texts including government reports in all languages. o Article 1 st § Database of journals in “science, technology, social science, business, and the humanities” (Eglene 2000). o Contents 1 st § Browse table of contents of a variety of journals. · Access Online to Published Literature o Wiley InterScience: http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/ journalfinder.html § Contains abstracts and “full texts of journals in the fields of business, finance andmanagement, information and computer science, education, law, and psychology” (Eglene 2000). o Educational Resources Information Center/IT Clearinghouse: http://www.askeric.org/ithome § You can search with keywords and it suggests abstracts to you. · Useful Bookmarks o Best of Practice Government Solutions: http://www.gol.org/bestof.html § Provides government solutions in “technology, finance, public safety,WWW servers, etc.” (Eglene 2000). o National Center for Public Productivity: http://newark.rutgers.edu/~ncpp § “A research and public service organization devoted to assist federal, state, and local governments improve the delivery of quality services. The Web site contains exemplary state and local programs, best practices worldwide, and many publications” (Eglene 2000). o Alliance for Redesigning Government: http:www.alliance.napawash.org/alliance/index.html § Provides case studies, summaries of related books and articles, and access to online discussions. o Council of State Governments: http://www.csg.org/csg/default § Provides “publications, handbooks, contact information, innovation award winners, and other information on effective state governance” (Eglene 2000). o Innovations in American Government: http://www.innovations.harvard.edu/content.cfm?CFID=66589&CFTOKEN=86851000&flashInstalled=1 § “The Kennedy School at Harvard and the Ford Foundation sponsor the Innovations program” to stress ideal programs that “solve important public problems at every level of government” (Eglene 2000). o National Governors Association: http://www.nga.org § Provides an index of key problems. o National Association of State Chief Information Officers: http://www.nascio.org § NASCIO Web site addresses best practices “in the use of information technology in states, as well as numerous publications" (Eglene 2000). Also provides StateSearch, a complete directory of” information technology and management initiatives in state governments” (Eglene 2000). o International City/County Management Association: http://www.icma.org § Publishes a variety of publications and reference material in order to help “improve the process of local government management” (Eglene 2000). o Public Technology, Inc: http://pti.nw.dc.us/ § Offers publications that show the "best technology practices" throughout the U.S. (Eglene 2000). · Information Technology Solutions o Planet IT: http://www.planetit.com § Collection of ideas and shared information on technology and business solutions of IT executives and offers online discussion with professionals. o ISWorld: http://www.isworld.org § Offers “worldwide examples, explanations, discussions, and contact information related to information technology” (Eglene 2000). o Association for Computing Machinery: http://info.acm.org § You can search the ACM library online. o Institute for Operations Research and the Management Sciences: http://www.informs.org § You can have online discussions and search the database of all the “journals, conference papers, as well as PowerPoint presentations” (Eglene 2000). · Publications to Browse o Academic journals provide “tested conclusions” and trade publications provide information on current growth (Eglene 2000).
 * __Findings:__**


 * 3. Mathewes-Green, Frederica. “Pro-Life Dilemna” Policy Review. July and August 1996. 1 March 2010.**
 * (Bibliography by Ana Taylor)**


 * Authors Main Question**: How can Crisis Pregnancy Centers improve the lives of children saved from abortion but still facing possible poverty, homelessness, and single-parent homes?


 * Main Findings**: Adoption is an excellent alternative for those deprived children


 * Unwed women with children most often times depend on welfare in order to survive.
 * America has 3,000 pregnancy centers which have been servicing women in need for 30 years.
 * Pregnancy centers (PC) do the most to save threatened lives
 * PC’s influence has pushed the pro-life movement into a prominent position.
 * 80-90 %, approximately 200,000 clients, becomes single-mothers with wavering financial needs. Welfare becomes their main source of income (Mathewes-Green 1996).
 * Outcomes for such homes can be: poverty, low academic achievement, and susceptibility to crime ( Mathewes-Green 1996)
 * Pregnancy Centers should look forward into children’s lives and serve the long-term interest of children. Two-parent homes or adoption should be stressed and encouraged in order to rescue children from broken homes in their futures.
 * Welfare is a necessity for some single-mothers, but by giving these women money to live on, how will they ever learn to save sex for marriage- until they are financially capable of raising a family? The cycle continues: a girl growing up in without a father figure at home is more than twice as likely to have an illegitimate baby. Pregnancy centers are right in focusing on saving the lives of babies. However, in addition, they should be mindful of the futures of those children. A huge emphasis on adoption should be made.
 * Family Research Council in 1995 conducted a poll which asked respondents what would be the best plan for a pregnant, unwed teen.
 * 29% agreed the best choice was to place the child for adoption
 * 24% thought the girl should marry the father
 * 11% thought the single-parenting route was best
 * 8% chose abortion
 * Reality did not agree with the respondent’s opinions, however. According to statistics of 1991
 * 46 % of unwed mothers aborted their children
 * 44% of the children were given the gift of life, but only 2 % were placed for adoption
 * Adoption is a way for single-mothers to give their children a stable, two-parent household to grow up in.
 * Pregnancy centers need to find effective ways for promoting this option which will assist society as well by replacing overused welfare with a wholesome family.
 * June Ring stresses the importance of adoption as an option. As the coordinator of adoption resources for Presbyterians Pro-Life, she has develop a seminar entitled, “ Adoption: Making a Plan for Life” (Mathewes-Green 1996,3). Basically, she portrays adoption as “an attractive alternative”. As indicated in one study, in 40% of counseling situations, adoption is not even offered as an alternative. Every pregnancy-care worker should at least mention adoption and maybe plant a seed.
 * According to National Council for Adoption, a study in 1991 showed that unwed, pregnant teens were seven times more likely to choose adoption when counseling sessions offered adoption as an option. With parental involvement in counseling sessions, the teens chose adoption six times more often. Also, when the teen mothers were asked to compare adoption with prospect of being a single parent, the teen chose adoption six times more often.
 * Pregnancy centers have to be cautious when mentioning adoption because if the expecting mothers feel compelled into the decision, they can sue the Pregnancy Center later on. As June Ring says, “(They) don’t coerce, convince, or make the decisions, but (they) do give complete, objective, and accurate information.” (Mathewes-Green1996, 4). Pregnancy Centers must merely guide unwed mothers by showing them they give their baby’s life and accomplish their parenting goals by placing the child for adoption in order to give the child the best care possible. As Anne Pierson, a member of the Loving and Caring group, said, “The pregnant woman needs to see that she’s giving the child the gift of a family…She is being a very good parent by making a good plan for the child.” (Mathewes-Green, 1996, 4)
 * Anne Pierson mostly assists counselors who might have an unconscious bias against adoption
 * Counselors may not understand how a mother could “give up” their own child which leads to difficulty in presenting adoption as an option
 * Pierson leads those counselors by suggesting God’s unconditional acceptance of all people into his family
 * She helps them with key issues such as: how to bring up adoption, how to talk about it, the experience of grieving, the mom’s experience of learning new things about herself (Mathewes-Green 1996)
 * 10% of LIGHT House maternity home clients choose adoption, a statistic way above the national average. What they do differently:
 * Eliminate myths about motherhood, adoption, and abortion. Basically, set those ideas straight.
 * They give a realistic view of being a single-parent with it’s financial and emotional costs versus placing the child for adoption
 * “Women who are considering abortion are more open to adoption” (Mathewes-Green 1996, 5)
 * These are the kind of mothers aren’t concerned with the actual pregnancy itself, but the financial costs that accompany pregnancy. They challenge decisions by asking if the mothers are making an intellectual decision or maybe an emotional one.
 * Adoption can be made more visible as an option
 * For example: Mariam Bell in Virginia sets up a cheerful looking table outside an abortion clinic with balloons and a sign reading, “Choose Adoption” or “We Care About You”. If people come nearby, Bell will chat with them and give them packets of information about adoption. Just by being there outside the abortion clinic in a peaceful manner, pro-life people hopefully show expecting mothers a bright alternative.
 * For the past thirty years Pregnancy Centers have endorsed life-affirming choices with their clients by offering personal support and encouragement.
 * Those babies could end up in single-parent homes living off welfare. They deserve better.
 * Pregnancy Centers must emphasize adoption as an overall better option.

= =


 * Wiki 1:**

1. Intro: How can Atchison, KS address its growing obesity epidemic ? 2. Theor y Structural Functionalism is the sociological perspective which emphasizes that parts of society are structured to maintain its stability. When looking through such an eyeglass, society can be viewed as a vast network of connected parts, each of which helps to maintain the system as a whole. In a sense, a structural functionalist would view society as parts of a body working to keep the whole body healthy. Each structure, or social institution, has a function that maintains the equilibrium of the whole. Some examples of structures would be the family, educational systems, politics or the economy. They help realize social goals, create social cohesion, maintain cultural patterns like values and norms, and help people adapt to the environment. Though effective at maintaining stability of the society as a whole, there can be different kinds of outcomes from such structures. We call the intended consequences of these structures “manifest functions.” The unintended positive or neutral outcomes we call “latent,” and the unintended negative outcomes we call “dysfunctions.” In searching for an answer for our proposed question about the obesity epidemic, and while using the structural functionalist perspective, we paid special attention to the kinds of institutions in the U.S., which are also prevalent in Atchison, KS, and their manifest functions and dysfunctions. Some examples of institutions whose dysfunctions include the promotion of habits leading to obesity is the educational system, the economic situation in Atchison, specifically that which is concerned with the kinds of goods imported to the grocery stores here, and that which is concerned with the availability and affordability of exercise facilities. A final structure to consider is the infrastructure of the town itself, specifically the safety and quality of its trails and parks. Through considering these institutions, we can note their manifest functions. None were created with the intention of promoting obesity. So, how did such a dysfunction arise? When considering the educational system in Atchison, one can see that its primary purpose is the education of the youth. Often education involves sitting in a desk, with breaks for recess, gym class and lunch. Most subjects require children to focus on non-mobile charts, papers and lessons. Thus, the majority of time spent at school involves sitting, or walking, with a minority of time spent running, jumping and playing. The dysfunction which occurs from this fact is weight gain by children who are eating unhealthy foods, and unhealthy amounts of food at home or school, and are not spending the amount of time needed to burn off such calories. There are already state and national guidelines to the kinds of food served at public schools, and children are free to bring food from home so we will focus on how time is spent at school, rather than what is served at lunch. The problem of healthy food availability pertains more to the dysfunctions of the economic situation in Atchison, KS. The structures set up in Atchison, which provide the people with food for purchase, lack affordable, fresh and healthy choices. Some of this is an effect of geography and agriculture. Some of it, however, is a dysfunction of the type of structures Atchison depends on to provide it affordable food. With Wal-Mart as the largest grocery store in Atchison, the supply of fresh fruits and vegetables, and other organic options is lacking. The available items prove to be more expensive than the alternative, less healthy, boxed and packaged dinners and snacks. A final structure to consider is the infrastructure of the city of Atchison. It has a few parks, one of which even has a fitness trail. These were built to give the people of Atchison a place to recreate outdoors. When the weather is cold, however, there are not many options for people in Atchison who wish to participate in physical activity. The YMCA and Snap Fitness are the only two fitness clubs in town, and with monthly membership fees, they are not viable options for families in financially difficult situations. These observations about the institutions in Atchison and their manifest functions and dysfunctions point to a few possible variables which could be attributing to the high obesity rate. One independent variable could be (a) the amount of time students spend being active at school at Atchison Elementary, or Atchison Catholic Elementary, during a school year. Others could include (b) the average amount of fresh fruits or vegetables available at Wal-Mart throughout a year, or (c) the average cost of membership to the YMCA or Snap fitness during the year. These variables would be compared to the amounts in other cities with a lower obesity rate. The dependent variable would be the amount of weight gained by individuals in the group pertinent to the dependent variable. For example if we studied variable a the independent variable would be the amount of weight gained by random representative group of students in elementary school. If we studied variable b or c we would observe the amount of weight gained by a random representative group of the residents of Atchison in general. This group would need to represent all socio-economic classes. These variables could point us to some ideal solutions. For instance, if we found out that variable a,b or c had positive relationship with the independent variable connected to it, then we could take steps to adjust the structures involved with each independent variable. 3. Literature Review According to previous research, the obesity epidemic in the United States is very real, and very costly. Not only has obesity prevalence among adults and children increased two- and three-fold, respectively, since 1980, but the money used to treat obesity-related health issues has increased as well, totaling $117 billion in 2000 alone (CDC 2). There are reports, however, that say obesity prevalence among men, women, and children has appeared to be “leveling off” in recent years due to increased obesity awareness in the U.S. (CDC 3). Now, the obvious question is this: Can we really say the obesity epidemic is slowing just because some states report a “leveling off” of sorts in increasingly “obesity-aware” areas? And, how much of this credit is actually due to the Center for Disease Control’s Nutrition and Physical Activity and Obesity Cooperative Agreement Program sponsored in some states? 4. Methods Given our current data, the next step is to research the effectiveness of obesity-prevention programs. Are these programs really curbing obesity in the U.S., or have the American people finally grown bored with this “epidemic” and decided to move forward themselves? Factual research, data, and results for either of these options would be invaluable. Before we answer this question, though, it is important to point out a particular clause. In order to research how the obesity epidemic is slowing, we must first realize if, in fact, it really is “leveling off.” The CDC reported no significant increase in obesity prevalence among children, adolescents, women, or men between 2003-2004 and 2005-2006. This is the first recorded decline in the rising obesity rates since the disease began to escalate in 1980 (CDC 3). Is this a permanent change of direction for obesity rates in the U.S., or are these instances a mere lull in the continuing obesity epidemic? To answer this question, we will begin to look at the structure of schools in America, where children spend a large portion of their day. Governments have already begun mandating certain health and fitness requirements for public schools, including regulated P.E. and recess times, as well as types of food served at lunch. To measure the effectiveness of these sorts of programs in Atchison, KS, we would compare a random sample of students from the public elementary school and compare them with students from schools that have already demonstrated successful school fitness programs. The independent variable would be the student sample from Atchison Elementary School. This sample would, of course, need to represent students of all gender, ethnic, and socioeconomic backgrounds. This group would then be compared to a control group made up of students from the same variety of backgrounds and who show lower obesity prevalence in these “healthier” schools.The dependent variable of the experiment would be the obesity rates of the children we study, the independent variable. Obesity, as well as overall BMI levels (Body Mass Index), would indicate the effectiveness of Atchison Elementary School’s fitness program and nutritional requirements. Factors (variables) that would be studied could include the amount of time spent outside during recess, time spent in a supervised/organized P.E. class, participation requirements of these P.E. classes, food options offered at lunchtime, and the quantity/quality of snack foods allowed outside of lunch. After studying these variables and how they affect the children of Atchison, we would have a better understanding of where our kids stand compared to students who attend schools with recognized fitness/health requirements. 5. Conclusion In conclusion, there are many factors outside of the school setting that are contributing to the future of America’s obesity epidemic. Even within our small town of Atchison several of these factors exist, such as the geography and agriculture of our town and the surrounding areas, availability and price of fresh, healthy food items versus packaged snack foods high in fat and calories in our stores, the infrastructure of the city, including parks and walking/biking trails, membership fees/affordability/availability of fitness gyms like the YMCA, and perhaps most importantly the socioeconomic and financial situations of the families affected most by obesity in Atchison. Studying behavior in schools is just one way to recognize common problems in our community and find ways to fix them. 3. Literature Review: a. What does previous research say about the issue? 4. Methods (If we were to conduct a sci. experiment to help pinpoint causes) a. Given previous sections, what research do we need to conduct now? b.What would your dependent and independent variables be? c. What data would you gather? 5. Conclusion Katie Desme January 31, 2010 Dr. Coward-Bucher Annotated Bibliography National Center For Chronic Disease Prevention And Health Promotion. “ Obesity Halting the Epidemic by Making Health Easier At a Glance.” Revised February 2009. 31 Jan. 2010. Main Questions: 1. What are the consequences of obesity? 2. What is being down to create awareness for the epidemic of obesity? Findings The article, “ ObesityHalting the Epidemic by Making Health Easier,” addresses the issue of obesity in the U.S. With many health issues in the U.S., obesity seems to be a major concern for not only adults, but for children. CDC states that “More than one third of U.S. adults – more than 72 million people – and 16% of U.S. children are obese. Since 1980, obesity rates for adults have doubled and rates for children have tripled” (2). These astounding rates have produced many consequences, health and socially related, which health programs are trying to address. “Obesity has physical, psychological, and social consequences in adults and children” (CDC 2). There are many health consequences from obesity. Some of these are coronary heart disease, type 2 diabetes, cancer, high blood pressure, dyslipidemia, stroke, liver and gallbladder disease, sleep apnea, respiratory problems, osteoarthritis, and many others. Obesity puts many adults in danger, and also children. “One study of 5- to 17-year-olds found that 70% of obese children had at least one risk factor for cardiovascular disease and 39% of obese children had at least two risk factors” (CDC 2). Since obesity is harming so many of the U.S. people, treatments and programs are being created which costs a lot of money. In order to find a cure, medical costs have increased greatly. “In 2000, obesity-related health care costs totaled an estimated $117 billion” (CDC 2). As obesity rates increase, the costs used to help the consequences of obesity also increase. “Between 1987 and 2001, diseases associated with obesity account for 27% of the increases in medical costs” (CDC 2). Consequently, since obesity among children is becoming more common, more money is being used to treat obesity. “From 1979-1981 to 1997-1999, annual hospital costs related to obesity among children and adolescents increased, rising from $35 million to $127 million” (CDC 2). This amount of money used to treat obesity is most likely increasing since obesity rates keep raising. In any event, recent studies are showing progress in the treatment of obesity. “Major CDC surveys have found no significant increase in obesity prevalence among children, adolescents, women or men between 2003-2004 and 2005-2006. Also, obesity rates appear to be leveling among children in some states such as Arkansas” (CDC 3). CDC provides programs to increase awareness of obesity in the U.S. Also, CDC has partnerships with many obesity related programs. “Currently, 23 states are funded through CDC’s Nutrition and Physical Activity and Obesity (NPAO) Cooperative Agreement Program that coordinates statewide efforts with multiple partners to address obesity” (CDC 3). Through many efforts, obesity is being taken more seriously in the U.S. On account of the consequences of obesity, these are being considered and treated. Ana Taylor Introduction to Sociology Dr. Coward-Bucher 31 January 2010 Khan, Laura Kettel. “Recommended Community Strategies and Measurements to Prevent Obesity in the United States.” Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 58 (2009): RR-7. Authors Main Question: Which Strategies Created By The CDC Would Best Decrease Obesity Rates In The United States? Main Findings: · Main Findings: O besity has become a developing epidemic in the United States. Thirty-three percent of U.S. adults and seventeen percent of U.S. children are obese. (Khan 2009, 1)Adults, with a body mass index (BMI) ≥30.0 are considered obese, while the six percent of those with a BMI ≥40.0 are considered extremely obese, are potentially risking chronic diseases. Heart disease, type 2 diabetes, certain types of cancer, and strokes are all possible effects of obesity. Rates of obesity have doubled from 1980-2004, our country’s dilemma will develop rapidly (Khan 2009, 1).Measures by government policy and environmental changes must be taken to decrease and prevent this epidemic. The community as a whole, with the assistance from its individual constituents, will amend these shocking obesity statistics. The CDC, The Center for Disease Control, can support communities and local governments by employing the use of the Common Community Measures for Obesity Prevention Project, known also as the Measure Project. The object of the Measure Project is to identify and recommend strategies that can be used for obesity prevention. The community can take advantage of twenty-four different strategies. The local government can then monitor environment and policy level change to see if the strategies work effectively. Environment factors, as a prevention of obesity, are not within management of the individual. Communities and local governments can respond by creating a beneficial environment which supports a healthy lifestyle. Twenty-four strategies, grouped into six categories, were created by CDC in collaboration with many other groups and institutions. Category 1: emphasizes an increase in amount of physical activity and limitation of sedentary activity among children and youth. Strategies such as: An increase of participation in PE class in public schoolsAvailability for extracurricular physical activities outside of school for children A decrease in the amount of screen time allowed in public service venues, such as child care. Local governments would change policy in order to accommodate these strategies. Changes would include: A required minimum of 150 minutes per week in PE classes in elementary schools and a minimum of 225 minutes per week in middle school and high school. At least 50% participation would be mandatory. To increase opportunities for extracurricular physical activity, public schools within the largest school district would allow the general public to use their athletic facilities. Public service venues, such as child care facilities must limit screen viewing time for no more than two hours per day for children aged greater than two years old. Category 2: Suggests creating safe communities that promote physical activity. Improving access to outdoor recreational facilities Enhancement to the infrastructure of bicycling and walking Relocating schools within walking distance for students in residential areas Improvement of access to public transportation Mix the use of land development Enhancement of personal safety in potentially physical activity locations. Category 3: Coalitions that address obesity would be profitable to the entire community. The common goal of improvement of nutrition and physical activity would be reached by the multiple perspectives, talents, and expertise of community members. Category 4: Healthy foods and beverages would decrease obesity as an epidemic if it were readily available to all. Unhealthy foods are loaded with high calorie, fat, sugar, and sodium content, and low nutrient content (Khan 2009,11). Healthy foods are also more expensive and cannot be afforded by lower income families. Changes: If communities could increase and improve the availability of healthier foods, especially in public service venues, Enlarge the geographic availability of supermarkets in underprivileged neighborhoods Provide food retailers with incentives to provide healthier foods as their merchandise, Improve availability of mechanisms, such as farmers’ markets, for purchasing food from farms Offer incentives for the production, distribution, and procurement of goods from local farms. Supermarkets have a larger selection of fresh fruits, vegetables, and meats for wholesome meals. However, when living in underprivileged neighborhoods that cannot support supermarkets, the availability of said food items is scarce. Farmers’ markets are also a good alternative. Category 5: Supports healthy food and beverage choices, especially among children. If communities could institute a policy prohibiting the sale of unhealthy foods, the availability in public service venues would be limited. Smaller portion sizes within local government facilities could be served, considering research has proven people usually will not notice difference in portion sizes (Khan 2009, 11). The advertisement of food and beverages via various media broadcasting should be decreased. As research has proven, more than half the television advertisements viewed by children are food related. Most promote fast food, soda, sweets, and other unhealthy foods (Khan 2009, 12). A local government policy within local government facilities or public school campuses enforcing the limitation of such commercials would also prompt community to pursue. A policy restricting the amount of sugar-sweetened beverage intake provided by child care centers and schools would be beneficial. Category 6: Encourages breastfeeding. Epidemiologic data suggests breastfeeding trains infants to regulate energy intake, thereby allowing him to control hunger responses. Breastfed infants are 13%-22% less likely to be obese than formula fed infants (Khan 2009, 13). The suggested measurement compels local government policies to permit mothers designated time and private space to breastfeed their infants. The suggested strategies are based on available evidence, expert opinion, and transparent documentation. However, they are not necessarily dependable as they have not been confirmed by practice. Application of these strategies, especially with new policies and environmental changes, will confirm which work the most effectively. Taylor Hindman Dr. Coward-Bucher Annotated Bibliography Wang, Youfa, and May A. Beydoun. "The Obesity Epidemic in the United States—Gender, Age, Socioeconomic, Racial/Ethnic, and Geographic Characteristics: A Systematic Review and Meta-Regression Analysis." Epidemiologic Reviews 27 Jan. 2007 "The Obesity Epidemic in the United States—Gender, Age, Socioeconomic, Racial/Ethnic, and Geographic Characteristics: A Systematic Review and Meta-Regression Analysis" This article addresses the fact that over the past three decades, obesity has grown exponentially. The article takes studies and interprets them to show trends relating obesity to SES (Socioeconomic status), race, and gender. The data has been taken from studies starting in the 1970’s so we are able to see the trends change and give us an idea of where the obesity epidemic will be in the future if we do not change our eating habits. The primary organization that performed these studies is called the National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys. (NHANES) -The article uses the BMI (Body Mass Index, units are (kg/square meter)) frequently in using that as a measure of obesity. Typical BMI’s range from different types of people. Athletes should be around 12-15% body fat, males generally 15-16%, while females 15-18%. -According to the World Health Organization, obesity is defined as having a BMI over 25-30 kg/square meter. Results of the st​udy - In 2003–2004, among men and women aged 20 years or older, approximately two thirds (66.3 percent) were overweight or obese, 32.42 percent were obese, and 4.8 percent were extremely obese (BMI over 40 kg/m2) -The study shows also that Non-Hispanic Blacks had the highest prevalence. Minority groups (non-Hispanic Blacks and Mexican Americans) had a higher combined prevalence than non-Hispanic Whites by almost 10 percentage points. The corresponding prevalences in 2003–2004 were 76.1 percent and 75.8 percent versus 64.2 percent. -Starting in 1970, U.S. women were much more in shape than men, and had an average BMI of 24.5 while U.S. men had an average BMI of 25.3. By 2001, the opposite has occurred. Although both the average BMI has increased dramatically, women’s BMI has increased to 28.2, while men’s only to 27.6.The main focus of the article is that despite race, SES, gender, or age, obesity is climbing at an exponential rate. Currently, obesity is the second leading cause of death in the U.S., only to tobacco abuse. If we do not change the way we live and eat now, future generations could be facing an increasing epidemic which they may not physically be able to overcome. Katie Desme February 4, 2010Dr. Coward-Bucher Annotated Bibliography Finkelstein, Eric A.; Ruhm, Christopher J.; Kosa, Katherine M. “Economic Causes and Consequences of Obesity.” Annual Review of Public Health. 2005. 4 Feb. 2010. Author’s Main Questions: 1. What are the causes of obesity? 2. How is the economy involved in obesity epidemic? 3. What are the economic consequences of obesity? 4. What is the government’s role in treating obesity? Main Findings: · People gain weight through consuming too many calories. · Advancement in technology plays a role in weight gain. · However, since manual labor decreased long before obesity rose, technology isn’t a major factor for obesity. · “The fraction of wage and salary workers employed in goods-producing industries fell from 27% in 1980 to 19% in 2000 (12); however, this decline represents the continuation of longer-term trend: 35% of jobs were in goods-producing industries in 1960. The gradual decline in manual labor began well before the rapid rise in obesity rates and suggests that other factors are more likely to be responsible for the rise in obesity”( Finkelstein 2005, 241). · Research shows that calorie intake is not a main factor of the rise in obesity. · Time spent in physical activity increased from 7-24 minutes per day between 1965 and 1995. · Some research shows that calorie intake and obesity increased at the same time. · “The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (10) indicated that caloric consumption remained essentially unchanged between 1971-1974 and 1976-1980 but increased 7.3% (179 calories per day) for men and 23.3% (355 calories per day) for women between 1976-1980 and 1999-2000 (10)” ( Finkelstein 2005, 242). · Another factor is the intake of carbohydrates which has increased from 1039 and 700 kcal in 1976-1980 to 1283 and 969 kcal per day in 1999-2000. ·Fruit drinks and soft drinks are major reason for carbohydrate increase. · Snacking, number of snacks per day, and energy density of snacks are also factors of obesity. · “Culter et al. (13) found that higher snack calories are responsible for the entire rise in energy intake among females between 1977-1978 and 1994-1996 and for the 90% of the increase among males” ( Finkelstein 2005, 244). ·People will buy cheaper food. Thus, if fast food and other unhealthy food are cheaper, then people will tend to buy that over healthy food with fewer calories. · A study shows that people were given an equal amount of food (measured by weight) differencing in density. People who ate the highest energy densities are more calories because they still ate the same amount of food. · Prices have resulted in larger portions. Thus, the portions for food, especially unhealthy food, have increased. · Workers wanting more hours eat more restaurant and prepackaged foods. This also is a cause of obesity. · “…the consumption of food away from home increased from 18% to 32% of total calories between 1977-1978 and 1994-1996 and from 32% to 38% of food expenditures between 1980 and 2000 (17, 35)” ( Finkelstein 2005, 245-246). · Television is another factor of obesity. · In the early 1960s and mid-1970s, the color TV just came out, thus obesity rates increased. · Additionally, computers, video games, and other media have helped to increase obesity. · Television alone has increased snacking, portions, fat calories, and calories. The commercials on television are usually for food, thus viewers are exposed to many kinds of food. · Obesity has many consequences, medical costs being one of them. · “…data from the 1998 Medical Expenditure Panel Survey (MEPS) linked to the National Health Interview Survey (NHIS) and found that the average increase in annual medical expenditures associated with obesity is 37.4% ($732) and ranges between 26.1% ($125) for out-of-pocket expenses, 36.8% ($1486) for Medicare recipients, and 39.1% ($864) for Medicaid recipients” ( Finkelstein 2005, 247). · Annual health care costs are lower than lifetime medical costs; however, it is possible this is because people are living short lives. · “…4.3% of lifetime costs are attributable to obesity, compared with an annual estimate between 5.6% and 7.0%”( Finkelstein 2005, 248). · Obesity also causes many people to be sick in bed. · Adult women who are obese (BMI>95th percentile for age and sex) have 22% ($6710) lower annual household incomes than normal weight women. · Government can only do so much. Treatments funded through taxpayers’ money. If the taxpayers are obese, then the help of the government won’t be very effective.